Overview of Cognitive Science
Overview of Cognitive Science
Exploring how cognitive science principles can be utilized to improve the organization and processing of information to facilitate learning may be helpful for instructors.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Mayer developed this theory to provide guidance on how to create effective multimedia presentations for learning. The theory is predicated on three assumptions:
The Dual-Action Assumption
The dual-channel assumption proposes that people process information along two distinct, additive channels in working memory. Pictures and animations are perceived through the visual channel as nonverbal, image representations, while spoken words are perceived through the auditory channel as verbal, sound representations. Nonverbal and verbal representations are integrated in the working memory and ultimately transferred into long-term memory.
In a class presentation, this translates into using more imagery, whether a photograph or diagram, with audio or speech and less text, aiming to balance the information presented along the two channels to facilitate processing and learning. Consider how easy or difficult it would be for you to process the information about the dual-channel assumption if it was only presented to you in written or spoken format as opposed to also having access to the diagram below.
Text alternative summary of the Dual Coding Model (Provided for users with screen readers):
- Multimedia presentations with texts and pictures/animations are:
- Interpreted through a sensory presentation that uses ears (auditory) and eyes (visual) input and then:
- In working memory, these sounds (verbal representations) and images (nonverbal representations) integrate with prior knowledge of long-term memory.
- Information adapted from the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning by Richard Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning (2nd Edition)
The Limited Capacity Assumption
The limited capacity assumption suggests that people's working memory can only process a certain amount of information at the same time (about five to seven chunks of information). People who have strong metacognitive skills can increase their cognitive resources and working memory capacity.
Instructors should aim to prepare course material that:
- Focuses on essential content and removes irrelevant animations/information
- Presents material that needs to be learned in appropriately-sized chunks
- Helps learners to organize and integrate the material in working memory.
The figure below provides guidance on how to apply Mayer's 12 principles of multimedia learning in preparing effective course materials.
Text alternative table for Mayer’s 12 Principles for Multimedia Learning (Provided for users with screen readers)
| 5 PRINCIPLES around reducing extraneous processing and removing unwanted information. | Coherence: Only add relevant text & images. | Signaling: Written text has keywords highlighted. | Redundancy: Only use spoken words & images; do not add written text. | Spatial Contiguity: Related words and pictures are displayed close together. | Temporal Contiguity: Show corresponding words and pictures simultaneously, not successively. |
| 3 PRINCIPLES around managing essential processing and what needs to be learned. | Segment: Chunk segments for better understanding. | Pre-Training: Introduce names, key concepts &characteristics of main ideas. | Modality: Words should be heard as narration | ||
| 4 PRINCIPLES around fostering generative processing &integrating material in working memory. | Images: Use spoken words and images, not text. | Voice: Use a human voice. | Multimedia: Learner learns better when spoken words are combined with images. | Personalization: Make narration conversational & add stories to make it interesting. |
The Active Processing Assumption
The active processing assumption proposes that people don't absorb information passively. Rather, they need to be actively engaged in cognitively manipulating, organizing, integrating and synthesizing visual and/or verbal information for learning to occur.
Instructors should consider active learning approaches in their course design.
Metacognition
Metacognition is defined as the awareness of one’s own thinking process and how one learns. Flavell, who coined the term "metacognition" used this example: “I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double-check C before accepting it as fact.”
When instructors understand what activates and reinforces metacognition, they can empower learners and provide targeted support to enhance learning. Research has shown the following methods promote learners using and strengthening their metacognitive skills:
- Activating prior knowledge related to new concepts being taught by trying to connect concepts to common experiences
- Providing space for learners to reflect in writing on their learning
- Pre-assessing and post-assessing learning activities
- Identifying and discussing misunderstandings and misperceptions about material proactively
Guiding learners on how to approach problems through scaffolding and examples.